Cardiac arrhythmias often occur as complications to cardiac diseases such as myocardial infarction and heart failure. In serious cases, arrhythmias can cause sudden death. Treatment of arrhythmias is complex and aspects of care, especially the decision to control the ventricular rate vs. convert the arrhythmia, remain controversial.
Class III antiarrhythmics (IKr blockers) are commonly used to treat arrhythmia; however these drugs have also been shown to be proarrhythmic and cause greater lengthening in Purkinje fiber action potentials relative to those in ventricular muscle, presumably due to a greater contribution of IKr in repolarization of Purkinje fibers. For example, dofetilide (10 nM) has been shown to increase the APD90 (the action potential duration at 90% repolarization) of rabbit Purkinje fibers by 83%, (basic cycle lengths, or BCL=1000 ms). Similarly, quinidine (10 μM) increased APD90 by 93% in the rabbit. In addition to drug induced dispersion of repolarization, drug induced early after depolarizations (EADs) are thought to be an important cause of Torsades de Pointes (TdP) both clinically and in animal models.
Class III agents have been shown to be proarrhythmic due to blockade of the hERG potassium channel (IKr current in human ventricle). hERG channels refer to the product of expression of the human ether-a-go-go related gene, normally considered to be a potassium-conducting ion channel. It has been shown that combination therapy with quinidine (class III agent) and mexiletine (class I agent and sodium channel blocker) is more effective in the prevention of ventricular tachycardia (VT) and ventricular fibrillation (VF) in animal models and in humans. In isolated hearts, these effects have been shown to be due to sodium channel blockade. EAD generation is thought to be a major cause of TdP in humans. In addition, EADs have been shown to contribute to reinduction of atrial fibrillation (AF) following termination in isolated coronary-perfused canine right atria. Sodium channel blockers have been shown to prevent isoproterenol-induced TdP in a canine model and also abbreviate action potential duration in M-cells of the ventricular myocardium.
High densities of voltage-gated sodium channels in excitable tissues lead to a rapid membrane depolarization when excitable cells reach the threshold for sodium channel activation. The role of sodium channels in the action potential upstroke (Phase 0) has been well-characterized and block of sodium channels can affect cellular refractoriness and regulate heart rhythms. Sodium channels rapidly inactivate following initial opening during Phase 0 and during repolarization. Recovery of these inactivated channels is critical in determining the ability of a cell to generate another action potential. The period during which the cell cannot generate another action potential is known as the effective refractory period (ERP). Blockade of sodium channels can lengthen the refractory period of the cell and this activity is known to have antiarrhythmic consequences due to prolongation of the effective wavelength of the tissue, reducing the size of reentrant wavelets which the tissue can support. Blockade of sodium channels can also suppress ectopic beats which may also play a role in the genesis of fibrillatory activity in the heart. Indeed, the selective sodium channel blocker tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been shown to prevent VF in isolated rabbit hearts. Recent evidence has shown that sodium channel activity contributes not only to the action potential upstroke, but also can affect the action potential plateau (Phase 2) and repolarization (Phase 3). This sustained activity is thought to be a result of 3 separate mechanisms. The first of such mechanisms has been described as channel bursting in which the channel fails to inactivate. A second component is known as window current and occurs at potentials at which the steady-state activation and inactivation curves overlap. The third mechanism is a non-equilibrium phenomenon in which the sodium channels recover from inactivation during the repolarization phase. The sustained inward sodium current contributed by these three mechanisms can modulate repolarization during Phase 2 and Phase 3 of the action potential when the membrane potential is regulated by small amounts of both inward and outward current. Modulation of currents contributing to Phase 0, 2 and 3 of the action potential can have important roles in regulating refractoriness, action potential duration and EAD generation.
The ion channel modulating compounds described herein are atrially-selective, and block sodium channels in a frequency (or stimulation) dependent manner. Further, these ion channel modulating compounds are capable of blocking the late, early and sustained components of a sodium channel current to prevent EADs without substantially interfering with cardiac activity.
The ion channel modulating compounds of the invention are described in PCT Published Patent Application, WO 99/50225; PCT Published Patent Application, WO 2004/099137; PCT Published Patent Application, WO 2004/098525; and PCT Published Patent Application, WO 2005/018635, the disclosures of which are incorporated in their entireties herein in full by reference.